8 min read
Cecily Grace Morgan
Limonene is one of the roughly 400 terpenes produced by Cannabis sativa L. plants. Research into limonene has indicated that it may offer medical cannabis patients some positive health benefits, both physical and psychological.
Let's quickly go over everything there is to know about this citrus-scented compound.
Key takeaways
Contents
Limonene (or d-limonene) is a mono-terpene that is found all throughout the plant kingdom. It comes in high concentrations, unsurprisingly, in citrus fruits like lemons, limes, oranges, and grapefruits. It also shows up in herbs like rosemary and peppermint, as well as other plants such as juniper, ginger, turmeric, and eucalyptus.
There are over 20,000 terpenes naturally produced, but only about 400 of them can be found in cannabis plants, and limonene is one of the most prevalent.
Cannabis flowers (and some of the smaller leaves) are covered in crystal-like 'trichomes'. These resinous glands are where cannabinoids like THC and CBD are produced and also where you will find the terpenes.
While the percentages for CBD and THC can range between 0% and 30%, terpenes come in much lower concentrations. Limonene will usually only make up a small percentage, but this is usually enough to have a noticeable effect on the aroma and effects of a particular cultivar.
Terpenes play an important role in cannabis plants. They can help the plant protect itself from invaders while inviting beneficial pollinators. They also provide much of the smell and flavour we associate with different plants.
Terpenes may also be able to work together with cannabinoids to enhance their effects, but this is a source of disagreement between scientists.
This 'entourage effect' is a theory that proposes certain cannabis compounds may produce more beneficial effects when taken together. However, this has not yet been confirmed.
Limonene has been studied, but more research is needed to understand how it may support the therapeutic potential of medical cannabis.
So far, research has shown limonene may be able to:
Several terpenes, including limonene, have been linked to potential pain-reducing effects of medical cannabis.
In a mouse study, limonene given through the body reduced pain responses linked to the TRPA1 receptor, although injecting it into the paw caused pain. Some research also suggests it may help with nerve regeneration, which may be beneficial for patients living with neuropathic pain.
One 2024 study that focused on limonene in conjunction with THC found that "D-limonene selectively attenuated THC-induced anxiogenic effects, suggesting this terpenoid could increase the therapeutic index of THC". This suggests that limonene may offset some of the potential anxiety-inducing effects of THC. Another study suggests that limonene could potentially inhibit anxiety-related behaviour. However, much more clinical evidence is needed before we can draw confident conclusions.
Inflammation is a vital part of the human immune system, but when levels are too high, it can cause a number of health problems. There have been studies looking at how limonene may help a range of inflammatory conditions.
We have this systematic review looking at respiratory inflammation, which suggests that "Limonene has effective anti-inflammatory activity in both preventing and controlling respiratory system injuries."
This study focused on limonene's effect on ulcerative colitis, an inflammatory bowel disease, and suggested that limonene may have a beneficial effect on ulcerative colitis in rats.
Another looked at limonene's effects compared to Ibuprofen and other pharmaceuticals, finding that "D-limonene probably exerts anti-inflammatory effects through the suppression of TNF-α, IL-1β, COX-2, and iNOS and NO, PGE2 production."
Medical cannabis will not cure cancer, but there is very early research indicating that limonene may help slow the progression of certain tumours. According to a systematic review that looked into rat and mice studies, it may possibly “suppress tumour growth”, however much more in-depth clinical research and trials are needed before any concrete claims about limonene and tumours can be made.
Some scientists believe limonene could help patients manage acid reflux and heartburn. However, the exact reason for this hasn’t yet been established and the research that does exist on limonene and acid reflux is limited.
Limonene is widely used as a food flavouring and is considered to have low toxicity. However, there is no evidence that it’s safe for women who are pregnant or breastfeeding. It’s also been known to cause skin irritation.
Yes, although it’s rare, humans can have a limonene allergy. Oxidised limonene is known as a skin allergen and it can cause skin irritation, even among people who aren’t allergic.
Most medical cannabis extracts are made through CO2 supercritical extraction, using high-tech machines to extract individual compounds from the plant material.
But you don't necessarily need to take an extract. Some UK medical cannabis cultivars come with elevated levels of limonene.
There’s very limited evidence that limonene can affect mood positively. One study actually suggests that it could be pleasant citrusy scents that have an uplifting effect on mood for some people, and not the limonene itself. As for limonene being relaxing, there are some mouse studies that suggest it may have anti-anxiety properties when inhaled, but much more evidence is needed before we can draw a confident conclusion.
Limonene is a very common addition to skincare products. In cosmetics, it is often used as a fragrance and also for its potential antibacterial properties. It's also added to cleaning products for the same reasons.
That depends on its application, but in medical cannabis, limonene may have anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and analgesic properties. There is also early lab research suggesting it may also help with gastro issues, but much more evidence is needed before we can make confident claims about that.
Most citrus fruits, as well as certain herbs and other edible plants, have high levels of limonene. It's a common flavouring in drinks, sweets, and baked goods and is used to add a citrusy flavour and zest to food or drink.
Linalool is another common cannabis terpene, and it may share similar therapeutic potential with limonene, such as analgesic properties. In terms of their relationship, linalool may have the potential to enhance the effects of limonene when taken in combination, according to the entourage effect theory. However, the entourage effect remains a theory and the phenomenon hasn’t yet been scientifically confirmed.
Always ask your prescribing specialist or pharmacist for a Certificate of Analysis from the manufacturer. This document lists terpene levels and other important information.
Potentially, but it isn’t yet confirmed. There is emerging research that hints at the fact that limonene may help reduce food cravings but much more research is needed before we can draw a confident link between limonene and a suppressed appetite.
We mentioned above the issues around allergies, or at least sensitivities, regarding limonene. Some animal studies have show that very high doses of limonene may affect the liver.
As always, it’s important to talk to your GP or pharmacist before trying limonene.
No terpene has been confirmed as being the best for anxiety, but research has indicated that linalool, myrcene, caryophyllene and limonene may have anxiety-alleviating properties. It’s thought that some terpenes, including guaiol and terpinolene, are best avoided if you have anxiety.
Limonene is a versatile terpene that’s found in many products. To learn more about cannabis-based therapy options, feel free to check out our blog and education sections, both filled with information and expert advice.
If you’re curious about medical cannabis and wondering whether it might be an option for you, our online eligibility checker is fast and free.
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